Alien Invader

Becky recently noticed this previously unknown to us plant growing next to our driveway.  Her investigation revealed that this vine is as bad as the plague.  Since we missed the flowers, we do not know if this is Pale Swallow-wort or Black Swallow-wort.  Actual identification matters not since either must be removed and destroyed.  Dig it, black plastic bag it then bake it in the sun until nothing plantlike remains.  This area will require future watching to insure that we have indeed removed all of it.

This small plant was growing under the tangle in this spot.  We must attempt to remove the larger plants as completely as this small one.  Anything less than 100% removal represents failure so we will be working this area almost forever.  All growth will be removed and we will work to keep this ground devoid of any plant growth.

These seed pods will open releasing milkweed like seeds that float under silken parachutes.  This plant is related to milkweed and Monarch butterflies do mistakenly lay eggs here.  Unfortunately any larva trying to grow on these leaves will die.  Both the wildly invasive habit of Swallow-wort that will choke out native plants and its negative impact of the Monarch butterfly mandate the removal and destruction of this plant.  When this area is cleared, we will begin searching for other possible locations of this pest.

While we are on the topic of plant pests, here is another that in the end will reclaim our gardens.  Quack grass grows in all of our abandoned fields.  We work to remove it completely from our planting beds but where the garden and the field touch the quack grass reenters the cleared soil.  This bit of ground was diligently cleared of all weeds this spring.  Summer squash was planted here and a thick layer of mower ground tree leaves smothered weeds.  This bed looked well tended and weed free all season.  Now the squash was removed, the rotting leaves were pulled aside and the tips of this quack grass root system revealed themselves.  Working carefully, the root was removed all of the way back to the edge of the field.  A wood bark mulch fills a trench intended to separate the garden from the field.  This system works well but it is not perfect.  This root was removed intact and fall planted potatoes are going into this ground.  The leaf mulch will be reapplied and all will appear great when the potatoes begin to grow come spring.  We expect to remove new quack grass invaders and we will harvest a crop from what appears to be well tended ground.  We also expect that quack grass will completely reclaim this ground within two years of our departure from this place.  We know this because we have already seen this pest take back planting areas that we could not properly weed.

The following day tools were taken to the site of the invasion.  We were surprised to discover a large number of these nasty plants growing in this waste area.  The five foot long pry bar deeply penetrated the rocky ground allowing removal of both the above ground growth and the root mass.  We fully expect that bits of root were broken off and left behind.  Return visits in years to come will be necessary to keep this weed in check.  Total eradication is our goal but we know that this plant will reappear here for several years to come.

These seed pods have changed color indicating their seeds will soon be mature, free to float away on the wind.  In that regard we were lucky to discover these invaders when we did.  We may leave behind bits of root to regrow but we bagged hundreds of seeds.  Cooking inside of a black plastic trash bag will render these seeds unable to sprout.  That in itself makes this a day well spent!

Green Beans Or Monarch Butterflies

I have been feeling a bit under the weather!  When a beautiful sunny day came along a chance for little fresh air and sunshine was more than I could resist.  I thought I would see if there were any more green beans worth picking and clean up that garden bed.   I opened the cage and moved my little garden cart into position.  Sitting that close to the ground the first thing I noticed was not green beans.  Instead I saw two Monarch caterpillars on one milkweed plant.

"Fine!" I though," I'll look elsewhere."  I moved to another area of the green bean bed.  Once again I noticed two Monarch caterpillars on one milkweed plant.

One more time I moved.  This time a single, but large and healthy looking Monarch caterpillar caught my attention.  I still had not seen any green beans worth picking.  In the end I chose the Monarch butterflies.   As I closed up the fence I noticed a few more caterpillars in the green bean bed.   As I pulled my cart back toward the house, a bright orange and black, perhaps newly hatched, Monarch butterfly flew across  my path.  I definitely made the right choice.   Monarch butterflies it is!

September First Frost

Just to be clear, this post title refers both to the first frost of the season and the fact that it occurred on the first day of September.  Located in the Southern Tier of New York, we are accustomed to seeing the aftermath of a late September frost some years but never this early in the month.  The weather service did not speak of possible frost last night but mentions it for tonight.  Last night's forecasted low was in the mid forties.  We have been here long enough to know the likelihood of frost in our location when the weather station expects numbers in the forties.  It came as no surprise when we looked out this morning and saw wilted leaves on the squash.

The pattern of the damage raises more questions than answers about the actual movement of the cold air that caused the damage.  Long after we placed our garden we observed the pattern of frost on the grass.  Cold pours down from the high ridge behind the ridge that we can see from here and its path is defined by our low notch.  That river of cold follows the contour of the lower ground and finds an exit toward the west.  Unfortunately for us, a wide bend in that river washes over much of our garden.  The basil is planted on slightly higher ground and escaped any damage last night.  We hope that it remains undamaged come morning.

When I first came to this area little more than one half of a century ago, the old timers spoke of the year without summer.  They had heard stories from men much older than themselves of a year when frost formed every month of the year.  Only July and August are usually free of freezes but there are old tales of frost then. If the frost formed before midnight last night, then we just experienced frost in August.  So in this youngster's memory, frost eleven months out of the year is possible but rare.  A July frost seems highly unlikely but who is going to argue with tales from the collective memory of old timers.

This is just a little good news.  Ingaborg gave us these plants many years ago and we refer to them as Inga's mallow.  They self seed and reappear in many places in the garden.  They can be transplanted if the move is completed early since they grow from a taproot.  These beautiful flowers never fail to spark fond memories of a true master gardener.

This is the season of mums in front of many stores.  We prefer to grow our own but the plants prefer a warmer location.  This Mammoth Pink has held its location near the south facing house wall for the past two years.  It is self shaped since we never get around to that task.  These flowers should be fine tomorrow since our frost river flows far away from this spot.

Stunning Combinations

Much of what happens in our gardens is a matter of luck rather than careful planning.  In this case the unplanned combination of White Phlox and Cardinal Flower must be remembered and repeated.  That both flower at the same time is what makes this special.  There is a self planted small phlox that is easily movable and we must give some thought to its next location.  It will be surrounded by Cardinal Flower plants.

Phlox come with some drawbacks.  Deer are terribly fond of eating them.  The plant in the picture is encased year round inside a wire cage.  Deer trimming does not drop below the top of the cage so the white flowers are lower than they would be if the plant remained unmolested.  As it is the height of the red and white flowers are very nearly the same.  That could be seen as a plus.

Left alone, Cardinal Flower places all of its blossoms on a single stalk.  Early pruning will result in a shorter but more numerous flower set.  That action totally destroys the natural appearance of this native plant but so does placing it in a garden.  We shall see what changes appear next year.

Anything looks good near a dry stone wall.  Clara Curtis Chrysanthemums grow here like dandelions so this picture seems like cheating.  Still this accidental staging will be repeated again and again.

Here is a bit of a puzzle.  Cardinal Flower presents a low rosette of leaves each spring.  As the flowering stalk grows the leaves near the ground disappear.  They may grow on the climbing stalk but the end result is that the ground at the base of the stem is bare.  This may be a plant from seed sending up flowers in its first year.  Likely the stems should have been snipped off to encourage the growth of a healthy rosette.  I cannot see myself doing that at this stage of the game.  The others are ending their flower production while this plant is just starting.  This plant is on the inside of the stone wall opening shown in the mum photo.  With this written reference, we may remember both the plant and its location next spring.

Seasonal Shift

Last night the temperature dropped into the low 40s.  At a different time of the year the decision to cover tender plants or take a chance would have been made.  August frost is not unheard of here but it certainly is rare.  An extra early wake up found the air filled with moist fog.

New England asters fill the roadside ditches and grow freely in other waste places.  A purple flower catches my attention every time so we have this native growing in far too many locations in our planting beds.  Roadside locations show this plant flowering on short stems following highway crew's mowing.  Here the deer rough prune as they walk our garden paths.  The plant's response is to produce more flowers on shortened stems.  We have yet found the time to prune and the beautiful flowers appear at the top of tall stems.  Lower the stem is covered with dead dark leaves.  With care these plants would make excellent garden subjects.

My Great grandfather introduced me to both chrysanthemums and the notion that real men could grow flowers.  Our cold location makes mums usually an annual plant here.  These Mammoth Pinks may be an exception.  Out in the garden they frequently winter kill.  These located right in front of the south facing house wall have expanded after two years in this spot.
 

Nursery men find our native asters irresistible.  From them they have created an aggressive plant named October Skies that grows rather close to the ground while maintaining the wild form of the flower.  No pruning is needed here but a large space will be filled by this plant.  Our original scrap of a mail order plant has given us two divisions and it still closes off the path opening in the stone wall.

Clara Curtis is truly hardy here.  It winters over with ease and has taken over large areas of whatever planting bed where we placed it.  Its appearance would benefit from some timely pruning and thinning.  We do manage to weed out occasional intrusions toward other treasured plants but have so far resisted the pull to sell plants.

This resembles a weedy jumble but it actually contains treasure.  This Pinxter bush has formed seed pods.  Checked daily, we plan to harvest some seed at exactly the right moment and again attempt to raise some of these plants from seed.  Our first attempt at this failed but this time we will place a screen barrier to keep out garden rodents.  This native plant grows best in moist locations that would also support the natural growth of Cardinal Flower.  We may have the perfect spot for these two plants to grow together.  All we need now is to get the seeds to sprout.

Dew Spider Webs Add Beauty To The Garden

This spider web on the coral bells is one of those interesting ones with a tubular hole in the center.  I don't see a spider lurking in there, but if I were a spider and could build a web like this, that is exactly where I would hang out!
 

The spider web on the Rose of Sharon looks all relaxed and curvy.  I have to wonder if when the dew dries this one will tighten up.  Perhaps some spiders are more laid back than others!  Without the dew droplets these small webs  are nearly impossible to see!

The Summer sweet bush holds a  small rather chaotic looking web.   Perhaps it met with an accident after it was spun or maybe not all spiders follow the plans exactly.  I still like the way the dew drops look on this one!

Next to a single Clara Curtis chrysanthemum flower is a classic spider web.  This spider might be small and brown, but she is a talented spinner. If I were a spider, I would be tickled pink if I made a web like this one!  These are only a small sampling of the spiders' traps that lie waiting for bugs in the garden.  I for one wish them good hunting.

GYMNOSPERMS QUIZ

1. Give event of Gymnosperms.

Ans: Gymnosperms are bare seeded plants. Gymnosperms are a gathering of antiquated plants. They end up noticeably predominant in the Jurassic time frame. The greater part of the gymnosperms are evergreen trees. Some shrubby plants are likewise found in this gathering. They have overall circulation. They are most rich in the calm locale. The fossils of gymnosperms are found close coal and oil stores.

2. How do treatment and seed arrangement happen in rec center nos perms?

Ans: Pollen tube conveys male gametes to egg (oosphere). Treatment happens and diploid oospore is shaped. Oospore is the start of gametophyte era. The oospore offers ascend to the fetus. Prothalial tissues give food to creating developing life. Integument is changed into the seed coat The unutilized prothalial cell progresses toward becoming endosperm.

3. What is implied by Ferns with seeds?

Ans: The primitive gymnosperms like Cycas are much indistinguishable with Pteridophytes (plants). They were taken as Pteridophytes for long time. They were called Ferns with seeds.

4. Give two similarities amongst gymnosperms and pteridophytes.

Ans: Both have customary rotation sporophytic and the gametophytic eras. Their sporophyte is overwhelming and shapes the primary plant body. Gametophyte is decreased to prothellus. Both are heterosporous

5. Give two contrasts amongst gymnosperms and pteridophytes.

Ans: There is no seed development in the Pteridophytes. Yet, display in gymnosperms. The male cells or sperms are conveyed by dust tube to the archegonia in the gymnosperms. In any case, dust tube is truant in Pteridophytes.

6. Give two similitudes amongst gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Ans: They are comparative in their outer morphology, i.e., the

separation into root stem and clears out. Both have indistinguishable inside life systems. Cambium is available in gymnosperm and dicot angiosperms.

7. Give two contrasts amongst gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Ans: The conceptive structures of angiosperms are blooms, those of gymnosperms are cones. In angiosperms, the seeds are encased by genuine carpels and at development, a carpel shapes a natural product. It is missing in gymnosperms.

8. Name of request of gymnosperms.

Ans: Cycadofilicales, Bennettitales, Cycadales, Cordaitales, Ginokoales and Gnetales.

9. Which plant is called living fossil? Why?

Ans: Cycas is known as a living fossil. It has a few characters

normal with the Ptcridophytes.

10. What are coralloid roots? Give their preference to plant.

Ans: Cycas produces coralloid roots. Coralloid roots are short tufts and dichotomously stretched roots. These roots contain an endophytic alga in the internal piece of their cortex. Here and there, microorganisms are additionally present in the cortex. Microscopic organisms settle nitrogen.

11. What are transfusion tissues? Give their capacity.

Ans: Transfusion tissues are available around mid ribs. They cause horizontal conduction in the leaf.

12. How is microspore grow in Cycas?

Ans: The microspore cut off sidelong prothalial cell towards one side of the spore. The bigger cell at that point removes a little generative cell nearby the plothalial cell. It itself moves toward becoming tube cell. The microspore is freed at this stage. Spores are scattered by wind.

13. How does preparation happen in Cycas?

Ans: Pollen grain achieves the archegonial chamber by fertilization.

The mass of the dust grain distends towards the archegonial chamber. The dust grain blasts and discharge antherozoids into the archegonial chamber. Antherozoid enters the oosphere. Male core joins with the oosphere core. Prepared oosphere secretes a thick divider and turns into the oospore. Oospore creates fetus.

14. Give event and regular types of pinus.

Ans: The family Pinus has around 90 species. It has worldwide in dispersion. They are generally present in the mild areas. Four types of pinus are found in Pakistan: Pinus wallichiana; Pinus halepensis; Pinus roxburghii; Pinus gerardiana.

Female Gametophyte And Embryo SAC

Gametophytic nature: Endosperm is formed in the embryo sac by free nuclear division. Therefore, some botanists take it vegetative tissue of the female gametophyte. But this hypothesis is not accepted because it develops as a new structure after triple fusion.
Sporophytic nature: The endosperm nucleus produced as a result of the fusion of second male gamete with the secondary nucleus. Therefore, some botanists consider it a sporophyte tissue homologous to embryo. But the product of this fusion is not a new plant. Therefore, this fusion cannot be regarded as fertilization. This fusion forms a simple triploid (3n) nutritive tissue, not an embryo.
Special undifferentiated nature: According to this view, it is neither sporophytic tissue nor gametophytic tissue. But it is special undifferentiated triploid tissue. It provides nourishment to developing embryo in angiosperms. It is most accepted hypothesis.
DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO

Development of Dicot Embryo

The dewiopment of Capsella bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s purse) embryo is taken as model organism for the study of development of embryo of dicots. Following developmental changes take place in the embryo Capsella hurca pctstoris.

First division of Oospore: Its oospore increases in size. It divides transversely in two cells. The cell toward the microphyll end is called suspensor cell. The cells towards other side is called embrymial cell. Embryonal cell forms the major portion of embryo.
Formation of suspensor and radicle: The suspensor cell undergoes few transverse divisions. It produces short filament of cells called suspensor. The first cell of suspensor enlarges very much. It becomes basal cell. It pushes the embryo down into the developing endosperm. Suspensor also acts as conductive tissues for the nutrients. The last cell of suspensor adjacent to embryonal cell is called hypophysis. Hypophysis divides further to form radicle.
Ages of development of capsella bursa pastorts

Formation of octant: They embryonal cell increases in size. It divides by three divisions. Two divisions are vertical and one division is transverse. These divisions form eight groups of cells called octant or pro-embryo. The four octants towards the chalazal end are the epibasal or anterior octant. The other four octants which are adjacent to suspensor are hypobasal or posterior octant.
11. Formation of cotyledons and plumule: The epibasal cells further divides to fora two cotyledons and plumule. Further divisions occur in the cotyledonary cells and bibbed mass of cells is formed. These lobes are primary cotyledons. The plumule and epicotyl is produced in the notch between two depressions. Therefore, plumule in dicot is terminal in origin.

12. Formation of bypocotyl: The hypobasal octants divide to form mass of cells called hypocotyl. Hypocotyl is elongated. It carries radicle at its tip.

13. Folding of embryo: The developing embryo increase in size. Therefore, it become curved or folded in different ways. The way of folding of embryo in seed is characteristic feature of each plant.

14. Formation of basic layers of meristem: Two successive divisions occur in octants. It produces three layers. The outer layer is called dermatogen, middle is called periblem and central one is called plerome. Dermatogen gives rise to epidermis. Periblem gives rise to cortical portion. Plerome forms the stele in the centre.

Development of Monocot Embryo The development of Sagittaria sagittifolia embryo is taken as model organism for the study ofembryology of monocots. It undergoes following changes:

Its zygote divides by a transverse wall into a terminal and a basal cells
2. The basal does not divide further. It enlarges to form a vesicular cell. The terminal cell divides transversely to form proembryo.

3. The proembryo upper, middle and basalupper, middle and basalThe lowermost cell of the proembryo divides by a longitudinal wall. It then divides by transverse and longitudinal walls. Thus

9

eight cells are formed. These are arranged in two tiers. Each containing four cells.

Each of the eight cells undergoes periclinal division and form dermatogen. Thus the entire region grows. It differentiates into a single terminal cotyledon.
The middle cell of the proembryo undergoes a transverse division and two cells are formed. The lower of these two cells give rise to lateral shoot apex. The upper cell forms the hypocotyl, the tip of the root and a short suspensor. The suspensor is composed of 3-6 cells.
Apomixis

or Abnormal Embryonal Development

Apomixis includes all those cases of embryonal development in which the normal process of fertilization is not involved. Certain species of the following genera show different cases of apomixis Iris. Pea, Lilium, Malus, Crepis, Hypericum and Ulmas. Apomixes includes apogamy, apospory and parthenogenesis:

Apogamy: The development of embro from any cell of the gametophyte without the normal process of fertilization is called apogamy.
Apospory: The development of an embryo-sac from the
sporophytic cell, generally the nucellar cells, without undergoing the usual meiosis or reduction division is known as apospory. In apogamous cases the normal oosphere or one of the synergids, or one of the antipodal cells may develop into an embryo without the inyolvement of normal fertilization. If the cells involve involved are haploid then the embryo would also be haploid. The resulting plants are generally sterile. If such are diploid then the embryo and the resulting plant would also be diploid. It will be fertile pant.

Parthenogenesis: The development of a gametophytic cell or oosphere without undergoing fertilization is also known as parthenogenesis. It occurs in banana.
Polyembryony

Production of more than one embryo in an ovule is known as polyembryony. It is very rare in the Angiosperms. Citrus is a very good example showing different cases of polyembryony. There are different forms of polyembryony. These are:

1. Cleavage polyembryony. In this case, more than one embryo

may be produced from a single oospore. In such cases, all the embryos may not survive till the maturation of the seed due to the mutual competition.

Adventitious polyembryony: More than one embryo may be produced in a single ovule due to the development of certain nucellar cells. These cells changes into embryos in addition to the normal embryo which develops from the oospore. Such cases are known as Adventitious polyembryony. In the case of Citrus upto ten embryos have been recorded in the mature seed.
Sometimes, an ovule contains more than one functional megaspores. They develop into embryo sacs and oosphere. These oosphere are fertilized and produce more than one embryos.
Sometimes, embryos may develop from synergids or antipodal. Embryo from oospore is also there. Thus polyembryo are • formed.
Development of Seed and Fruit

The stimulus of fertilization leads to the development of embryo and endosperm in the. It also stimulates enormous changes in the ovule. These changes leading to the development of seed, and in the ovary wall resulting in the formation of fruit.

Development of seed

The ovule increases in size during development of embryo. Its integument becomes thin, dry and hard and forms testa. In certain seeds it may be differentiable into two layers. The inner one is generally thin and membranous. It is known as the tegmen. Tegemn represents the inner integument. The developing embryo may or may not utilize the whole of the endosperm. Thus endospermic or non endosperinic seeds may formed. In certain seeds a small amount of the nucellus persists as a nutritive tissue known as the perisperm. In the non endospermic seeds the cotyledons become massive. They contain the stored food material. This food is utilized by the embryo during the germination of the seed. In case of endospermic seeds the persisting endosperm is utilized by the embryo during the germination of the seed. In certain seeds outgrowths of variable sizes are produced. These outgrowths form aril or earuncle. A scar left on the seed. It represents the point of attachment of the ovule. It is known as the hilum.

Development of Fruit

The stimulus of fertilization also causes changes in the ovary wall. It becomes the fruit wall or pericarp. The ovary wall may become dry and hard giving rise to dry fruit. Or it may become soft and fleshy giving rise to the fleshy fruits. The development of the fruit from the ovary wall is one of the chief characteristics of Angiosperms. The development of the fruit ensures the protection and maturation of the seed. It also provides an efficient means of seed dispersal. In certain cases otter parts of the flower such as calyx or thalamus may also take part in the formation of the fruit. It some extreme cases, the whole inflorescence may be involved. Such fruits are called pseudocarps. Examples of these types are pear, apple, pineapple, strawberry, fig, mulberry etc. In certain plants the fruits may be produced even without the process of fertilization. Such fruits are generally seedless and are known as parthenocarpic fruits.

EMBRYO SAC OR FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE

Types of embryo Sac Development

There we types of embryo sac development. The classification is based on:

The number of 9 ses or spore nuclei entering into the formation of embryo sac Thus embryo sac may be monosporic, bisporic or tetrasporic tyr
The number, arrangement, and chromosome number of the nuclei in the mature embryo sac.
The total number of nuclear divisions occurring during megasporogenesis and development of female gametophyte.
Monosporic, Normal or Polygonum Type
It is commonly found in plant. It is commonly called normal type. However, it was first clearly described in Polygonum. Therefore, it is also called as Polygonum type.

This embryo sac has four well-defined megaspores. One of which gives rise to the embryo sac. The functional megaspore enlarges. Its nucleus divides. A large vacuole is formed between the nuclei. Thus the daughter nuclei move to the micropylar and chalazal poles of the embryo sac. Each nucleus divides twice. Thus four nuclei are formed at each pole. One nucleus from each pole migrates to the centre of the embryo sac. The two nuclei fuse to form a diploid secondary nucleus. Three nuclei at micropylar end are surrounded by membranes. They form egg apparatus. The central cell enlarged arid become egg cell. The other two cells becomes synergid. Thus embryo sac is formed containing 8-nucleoli and later 7-celled during its development.

Bisperic or Allium Type
This type of embryo sac is found in Allium. It is found in many monocot and dicot families. Two dyad cells are formed during first meiotic division duri-j. megasporogenesis. One of two dyad cell is abiyied The    of the surviving dyad cell towards the chalazal
end &lies to ft TM two haploid nuclei. These are called megaspore nuclei. These nuclei move towards opposite ends. These nuclei divide tw ice to form eight nuclei. One nucleus from each pole migrates to the centre of the embryo sac. Three nuclei at the upker end produce egg apparatus. The nuclei present at lower end form

antipodal cells. In this way 8- nucleate bisporic embryo sac develops.

types of embryo sacs

Tetrasporie Type

In this type of embryo sac wall is not formed after the meiotic nuclear division. All four haploid megapsore nuclei take part in the formation of the embryo sac. The resultant embryo sac• may be 8- nuceleate or 16-nucleate. Thus it has two types:

a)     Plunrnbago Type (8-Nucleate): In this case, the megaspore nuclei arrange themselves in a cross-like manner. One lies at the micropylar ends and the other lies at the chalazal end. The other two are present at each side of the embryo sac. Each nucleus divides once. Thus pairs of four nuclei are formed. One nucleus from each pair migrates to the centre. They fuse to form tetraploid secondary nucleus. The nucleus at micropylar and form the egg cell. The rest three nuclei degenerate. There are no antipodal cells and synergids.

b)     Fritillaria Type (8-Nucleate): This type of embryo sac occurs in a large number of genera. In this case, Three out of four megaspore nuclei are arranged in 3 + 1 fashion. Three nuclei migrate to the chalazal end. The remaining nucleus comes at the micropylar pole. The micropylar nucleus divides to form two haploid nuclei. The three chalazal nuclei fuse. The fusion nucleus ‘divides to form two triploid nuclei. Now the embryo sac contains four nuclei, two haploid micropylar nuclei and two triploid chalazal nuclei. Later each nucleus divides. Thus they produce four haploid nuclei at micropylar end and four triploid nuclei at chalazal end. One nucleus from each pole migrates to the centre. These fuse to forms a tetraploid secondary nucleus. The nuclei at micropylar end form egg apparatus. The nucleus at the chalazal end gives rise to antipodal cells.

c)      Pen.tea Type (16 Nucleate): In this case, 16 nuclei are arranged in quarters. One is present at each end of the embryo-sac and two are present at the sides. Three nuclei of each quarter become cells. The fourth nuclei of each quarter moves towards the center and act as polar nucleus. Therefore, there are four triads and four polar nuclei. One cell of the micropylar triad is the egg. It is the only functional cell.

d)     Drusa Type (16 Nucleate): In this case, one megaspore nucleus moves towards the micropylar. The remaining three megaspore nuclei move towards chalazal end. Each nucleus divides twice. Thus four nuclei are produced at micropylar end and twelve at chalazal end. One nucleus from each migrates towards the centre of the embryo sac. They fuse to form secondary nucleus. The three nuclei at micropylar end form egg apparatus. The eleven nuclei at chalazal end form antipodal cells.

e)     Adoxa Type (8-Nucleate): The four haploid megaspore nuclei

present in the cytoplasm undergo a mitotic division. They produce eight nuclei. These nuclei are arranged in typical manner. Three of them come at the micropylar end. Three comes at the chalazal end. And two come in the centre (fusion nucleus). Thus normal 8.nucleate seven celled embryo sac is formed.

0 Paperoma tye (16 Nucleate): In this case, each of four megaspores nuclei divides twice. They form 16 nuclei. These are uniformly distributed at the periphery of the embryo sac. Two nuclei at micropylar end form an egg and a Synergid. Eight of them fuse to form secondary nucleus. The remaining three stay at the periphery of the embryo sac.

DEVELOPMENT OF ENDOSPERM

The primary endosperm nucleus divides repeatedly. It forms polyploidy nutritive tissue called endosperm. There are two types of seeds for storage of food:

a)   Endospermic or albuminous seed: The endosperm supply food to the developing embryo. Such ..e,xls are called endospennic seeds. In plants like corn, wheat, the . idosperm tissue is present at the time of seed germination. So the .e are endospermic seeds.

b)   Non-endospermic or ex-albuminous sc. :ds: In some casts, the

endosperm is completely utilized by de eloping embryo. Such seeds are known as non-endosperrnic seeds. In beans and peas the endosperm tissue is completely digested by the developing embryo and stored in the cotyledons.

Formation of Endosperm

Endosperm is formed from the primary endosperm nucleus. Its formation starts before the formation of embryo. Primary endosperm nucleus is produced by fusion of monoploid polar nuclei (secondary nucleus) and a monoploid second male gamete. The endosnerm is thus triploid (3n). However in some case, it may be pentaploid (Penaea). It may be even 9n (Pepromia).

Structure of Endosperm

The cells of the endosperm are isodiametric. They store large quantity of food materials. The storage food is present in the form of starch granules, granules of proteins, or oils. In certain plants. the endosperm cells develop very thick hard walls of hemicelluloses. The parietal layer of the endosperm of grass functions like a cambium. This layer produces on its inside layers of thin-walled cells. These cells are packed with starch. The cells of outermost layer stops dividing. It is filled with aleurone grains. This layer is called aleurone layer. The cells of this layer secrete diastase and other enzymes. These enzymes digest the food stored in endosperm for developing embryo.

Structure of maize sad

Structure of maize sad

Types of Endosperm There are three types of endosperms on the basis of mode of development. These are nucelar type, cellular type and Helobial type.

Nuclear Type: In this case, the primary endosperm nucleus divides by free nuclear divisions. Wall is not formed between them. A vacuole appears in the centre of the embryo sac. It increases in size and. Therefore, the nuclei are pushed to the periphery along the wall of the embryo sac. Later, walls develop between the nuclei. Thus cellular tissues are formed.
Cellular Type: In this case, the primary endosperm nucleus divides and walls are formed between the daughter nuclei. These walls may be either transverse or longitudinal. It divides the embryo sac into two cells. Later, these cells divide by repeated divisions. It produces a tissue of irregularly arranged cells.
Helobial Type: This type of endosperm occurs in the order Helobiales (Monocotyledons). In this case, first division of primary endosperm nucleus is followed by a transverse wall. This wall divides the embryo sac into a small chalazal chamber and a large micropylar chamber. Then the nuclei in each chamber divide by free nuclear divisions. But, there are few nuclear divisions in the calazal chamber. The endosperm in this
chamber degenerate. Walls develop between nuclei in micropylar chamber. It produces cellular endosperm.

Development of Embryo SAC

Mosaic Endosperm

Endosperm containing tissues of two different types is called mosaic endosperm. It occurs in plants like corn. In this case, endosperm lack of uniformity in the tissues. The endosperm contains patches of two different colours. It forms a sort of irregular mosaic pattern. The part of endosperm is starchy and part is sugary.

Perisperm

In this case, a part of nucellus may persist in embryo in the form of an apical cap. It acts as a nutritive tissue and called perisperm. It occurs in some dicots such as pepper and water-lily.

Hypothesis about the Nature of the Endosperm

There are different hypothesis about the nature of endosperm. These are:

Apiaceae

Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Carrot Family

Indicative characters

Propensities: Annual or perpetual herbs once in a while bushes.

Roots: Tap root, spread, here and there, tuberous because of quality of put away nourishment.

Stem: Herbaceous stem, erect or prostate with swollen hubs.

Leaves: Petiolate, Alternate, basic, exstipulate, reticulate venation. Generally sheathing at the base.

Inflorescence: Cymose, umbel (old name of family Umbelliferae get from umbel), basic or compound. Umbel is encompassed by thin verdant bracts involure and involucel.

Bloom: Ped ici I late, ebracteate, actinomorphic, Regular, finish, bisexual; epigynous with a circle, pentamerous, at times, external petal of minimal blossoms of umbel are expanded. In this manner, the blossoms are unpredictable and zygomorphic.

Calyx: 5 sepals, adnate to ovary, unrivaled, free.

Corolla: 5, free, regularly bifid, unequal velvate or imbricate, unrivaled.

Stamens: 5 Stamens, free, exchanging with petals, anther adaptable, predominant.

Carpel: Bicarpillary, syncarpous, ovary substandard, bilocular with single pendulous ovule in each loeulus, style two, disgrace two, placentation parietal.

Natural products: Cremocarp, oval, furrowed.

Seed: Albuminous seed

Flower equation and Floral Diagram

— ED or t, , Kg or C5, A1. 'Cm.

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Financial significance

Nourishment: This family has numerous vegetables like carrot, parsely, parsnip and sowa.

Feed: Several individuals from this family are imperative as search plants for cows and steeds. Some of these plants are carrot, wild parsely, cow parnip, angelicas etcs.

Codiments: Many individuals from this family are utilized as toppings. For instance, Fercula (Hing), Carum (Ajwan), Cuminum (Zira), Foeniculum (Saunf), coriandrum (Dhania) and peucedanum (Sowa). Unstable oils, pitches and so on are created in the bark, leaves, and natural products give the plant their aroma.

Therapeutic: This family has numerous restorative plants. For instance, Ligusticum (Lovage-Ajwain), Ferula (Hing), Foeniculum (Saunf), Anethum (Dill or Sowa) are utilized as a part of many medications for stomach related scatters.. Hing is gotten from resinous gum delivered from the underlying foundations of Ferula asafetida in Afghanistan and Iran. Centella or Hydrocotyle (Brahmin booti) is helpful for mind work.

Toxins: Several individuals from this family give harsh watery juice. It has opiate impacts in creatures. Among these, the most critical is conium (Hemlock). All aspects of this plant particularly new leaves and natural products contain an unpredictable sleek antacid called conine. It is much noxious. Its few drops can execute some little creatures. It follows up on sensory system. In this manner, its little snooze is viable for destructive and apprehensive clutters. A few

English species like Oenanthae, Cicuta and Aethusa are additionally harmful. Their meaty roots are dangerous to a wide range of domesticated animals. These are additionally lethal to human.

Oil: Oil is gotten from coriander (Dhania) and Centella (Brahmi). These are utilized as hair oil.

Fancy plants: Several plants are developed locally as decorative plants like blue lac bloom or didicans (Trachymene), Angeica (Angelica), ocean holly (Eryngium) and bovine parsnip (Heraclaeum).

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Conveyance design

This family is generally known as carrot or parsely family. It is an extensive family. It contains around 200 genera and 2900 species. The vast majority of its individuals are slick or fragrant. They are Wia:.ly dispersed. They are mos.. plenteous in the north mild and sub-tropical districts. They are for the most part truant from tropics.

critical Species

Daucus carota, Carrot (Gajar)

Foeniculum vulgaris Fennel-Saul&

Coriandrum sativum, Corriander-Dhania

Apium graveoloens, Celery — Ajmud

TAKHITAJAN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

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Armen Leonovich Takhtajan or Takhtajian (June 10, 1.910 — November 13, 2009) was a Soviet-Armenian botanist. He was a standout amongst the most critical figures in twentieth century plant development and systematics and biogeography. His interests included morphology of blossoming plants, paleobotany, and the verdure of the Caucasus (Russia). He was conceived in Shushi. Takhtajan worked at the Komarov Botanical Institute in Leningrad. He built up his 1940 grouping plan for blossoming plants. This characterization underscored phylogenetic connections between plants. His framework did not wind up noticeably known to botanists in the West until after 1950. In the late 1950s he started a correspondence and coordinated effort with the conspicuous American botanist Arthur Cronquist. – The plant order plan of Cronquits was vigorously impacted by his coordinated effort with Takhtajan and different botanists at Komarov. Takhtajan was an individual from the Russian Academy of Sciences, and also a remote partner of the U.S. Sciences since 1971. He was additionally the academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, the leader of the Soviet All-Union Botanical Society (1973) and the International Association for Plant Taxonomy (1975). He was an individual from the Finnish Academy of Science and Literature (1971), the German Academy of Naturalists "Leopoldina" (1972) and other logical social orders. He is a creator of deals with the source of blossoming and paleobotanics. He built up an arrangement of higher plants. He chipped away at the "Vegetation of Armenia" (vol. 1-6, 1954-73) and "Fossil blooming plants of the USSR "(v. 1, 1974) books.

Elements

I. His framework depends on phylogenetic arrangement of grouping. This framework has significantly affected every current arrangement of characterization.

His arrangement of characterization is roused by Hans Hallier's before speculations.

He distributed preparatory graph of phylogeny of requests of Angiosperms.

One of his fundamental developments was subdivision of the two monocots and dicots into subclasses. These are broadly acknowledged as a noteworthy headway in angiosperm order.

Takhtajan arrangement of classification* is manufactured, incorporated and in light of every single accessible datum. This information incorporates late investigations in embryology, cytology, hereditary qualities, near life structures, photochemistry and sub-atomic information. It is additionally in view of cladistic examination of numerous texa.

The book of Armen Takhtajan, "Decent variety and grouping of blooming plant" incorporates interafamilial order (subfamilies and tribes).

Armen Takhtajan voyaged widely all through the world. He considered floristic piece of various districts. His book, "Floristic districts of the World", contains floristic division of entire of the world. It likewise recorded endemic families and genera. He additionally gave endemic types of every district.

He set forward different cases of parallelism and focalized development from angiospermic families. He utilized atomic information and accessible contemporary record to life form these species into their individual families.

Subside Steven, one of his pundit has tried the speculation of Takhtajan by DNA examination and discovered her characterization consummate.

The Takhtajan framework is like the Cronquist framework. In any case, it has more noteworthy many-sided quality at the larger amounts. He supports littler requests and families. It enables character and developmental connections to be all the more effortlessly got a handle on.

The Takhtajan grouping framework stays compelling. It is utilized, for instance, by the Montreal Botanical Garden. It is perceived all through the world.

Armen Takhtajan has period of over 100 years (June 10, 1910 — November 13, 2009). It is long life expectancy. He spent the majority of life in investigation of plants. He cooperated with numerous celebrated botanists of the world. Along these lines, his arrangement framework extraordinary in chalacter. It is shaped as aftereffect of hard work of over 80 years.

In this framework the blooming plants are partitioned into two classes:

a) Class Magnoliopsida (or Dicotyledons) incorporates 8 subclasses, 126 requests, c. 440 families, right around 10,500 genera, and no under 195,000 species;

b)Class Liliopsida (or Monocotyledons) incorporates 4 subclasses, 31 orders, 120 families, more than 3,000 genera, and around 65,000 species.

. He composed 20 books and more than 300 logical papers, a considerable lot of which were noteworthy, from his 1943 paper Correlations of Ontogenesis and Phylogenesis in Higher Plants, in which he revealed his speculations on macroevolution because of changcs in formative planning, through to his books Floristic Regions of the World and Diversity and Classification of Flowering Plants.

Taxa created by Takhtajan

The Takhtajan arrangement of blossoming plant grouping regards blooming plants as a division (phylum), Magnoliophyta,. It has two classes. These two classes are subdivided into subclasses, and then superorders, requests, and families. The two classes are:

a) ,Magnoliopsida (dicots): It has following subclasses:

Subclass Asteridae

Subclass Caryophy I idae

Subclass Dilleniidae

Subclass Hamamel id idae

Subclass Magnoliidae

Subclass Rosidae

b) Liliopsida (monocots): It has following st.'Iclasses:

Subclass Alismatidae

Subclass Arecidae

Subclass Cornmelinidae

Subclass Liliidae

Subclass Zingiberidae